http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Ccaggia3Physics Book - User contributions [en]2026-04-21T00:04:30ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.42.7http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7930Atomic Theory2015-12-02T06:43:30Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
[[File:Neon_orbitals.JPG|thumb|center|The first five atomic orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2px, 2py, and 2pz.]]<br />
<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Apollo_synthetic_diamond.jpg|'''Material Science:''' Synthetic diamonds are used for both cosmetic retail and in manufacturing cutting tools.<br />
File:Electrical_and_Mechanical_Services_Department_Headquarters_Photovoltaics.jpg|'''Power:''' Solar cells and power rely on the photovoltaic effect and the wave-particle duality of subatomic particles (like photons).<br />
File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg|'''Electronics:''' Silicon, a popular semiconductor used in electronics, is produced industrially in a single-crystal form.<br />
File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|'''Food processing:''' An atomic view of table salt. Purple particles are sodium (Na), and green particles are chlorine (Cl).<br />
File:Nagasakibomb.jpg|'''Defense:''' Nuclear weapons were used during World War II.<br />
File:White_Matter_Connections_Obtained_with_MRI_Tractography.png|'''Medicine:''' MRI's provide doctors critical information without the risks of surgery.<br />
File:Plastic_household_items.jpg|'''Manufacturing:''' Many common household items are made with plastic.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]<br />
*Demonstration of the [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/hydrogen-atom various models] of a hydrogen atom<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7910Atomic Theory2015-12-02T06:16:49Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
[[File:Neon_orbitals.JPG|center|The first five atomic orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2px, 2py, and 2pz.]]<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Apollo_synthetic_diamond.jpg|'''Material Science:''' Synthetic diamonds are used for both cosmetic retail and in manufacturing cutting tools.<br />
File:Electrical_and_Mechanical_Services_Department_Headquarters_Photovoltaics.jpg|'''Power:''' Solar cells and power rely on the photovoltaic effect and the wave-particle duality of subatomic particles (like photons).<br />
File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg|'''Electronics:''' Silicon, a popular semiconductor used in electronics, is produced industrially in a single-crystal form.<br />
File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|'''Food processing:''' An atomic view of table salt. Purple particles are sodium (Na), and green particles are chlorine (Cl).<br />
File:Nagasakibomb.jpg|'''Defense:''' Nuclear weapons were used during World War II.<br />
File:White_Matter_Connections_Obtained_with_MRI_Tractography.png|'''Medicine:''' MRI's provide doctors critical information without the risks of surgery.<br />
File:Plastic_household_items.jpg|'''Manufacturing:''' Many common household items are made with plastic.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]<br />
*Demonstration of the [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/hydrogen-atom various models] of a hydrogen atom<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7908Atomic Theory2015-12-02T06:10:59Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Apollo_synthetic_diamond.jpg|'''Material Science:''' Synthetic diamonds are used for both cosmetic retail and in manufacturing cutting tools.<br />
File:Electrical_and_Mechanical_Services_Department_Headquarters_Photovoltaics.jpg|'''Power:''' Solar cells and power rely on the photovoltaic effect and the wave-particle duality of subatomic particles (like photons).<br />
File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg|'''Electronics:''' Silicon, a popular semiconductor used in electronics, is produced industrially in a single-crystal form.<br />
File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|'''Food processing:''' An atomic view of table salt. Purple particles are sodium (Na), and green particles are Chlorine (Cl).<br />
File:Nagasakibomb.jpg|'''Defense:''' Nuclear weapons were used during World War II.<br />
File:White_Matter_Connections_Obtained_with_MRI_Tractography.png|'''Medicine:''' MRI's provide doctors critical information without the risks of surgery.<br />
File:Plastic_household_items.jpg|'''Manufacturing:''' Many common household items are made with plastic.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]<br />
*Demonstration of the [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/hydrogen-atom various models] of a hydrogen atom<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7907Atomic Theory2015-12-02T06:08:53Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Apollo_synthetic_diamond.jpg|Material Science: Synthetic diamonds are used for both cosmetic retail and in manufacturing cutting tools.<br />
File:Electrical_and_Mechanical_Services_Department_Headquarters_Photovoltaics.jpg|Power: Solar cells and power rely on the photovoltaic effect and the wave-particle duality of subatomic particles (like photons).<br />
File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg|Electronics: Silicon, a popular semiconductor used in electronics, is produced industrially in a single-crystal form.<br />
File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|Food processing: An atomic view of table salt. Purple particles are sodium (Na), and green particles are Chlorine (Cl).<br />
File:Nagasakibomb.jpg|Defense: Nuclear weapons were used during World War II.<br />
File:White_Matter_Connections_Obtained_with_MRI_Tractography.png|Medicine: MRI's provide doctors critical information without the risks of surgery.<br />
File:Plastic_household_items.jpg|Manufacturing: Household items made of plastic.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]<br />
*Demonstration of the [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/legacy/hydrogen-atom various models] of a hydrogen atom<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7905Atomic Theory2015-12-02T06:07:21Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Apollo_synthetic_diamond.jpg|Material Science: Synthetic diamonds are used for both cosmetic retail and in manufacturing cutting tools.<br />
File:Electrical_and_Mechanical_Services_Department_Headquarters_Photovoltaics.jpg|Power: Solar cells and power rely on the photovoltaic effect and the wave-particle duality of subatomic particles (like photons).<br />
File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg|Electronics: Silicon, a popular semiconductor used in electronics, is produced industrially in a single-crystal form.<br />
File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|Food processing: An atomic view of table salt. Purple particles are sodium (Na), and green particles are Chlorine (Cl).<br />
File:Nagasakibomb.jpg|Defense: Nuclear weapons were used during World War II.<br />
File:White_Matter_Connections_Obtained_with_MRI_Tractography.png|Medicine: MRI's provide doctors critical information without the risks of surgery.<br />
File:Plastic_household_items.jpg|Manufacturing: Household items made of plastic.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory]] and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [[https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7899Atomic Theory2015-12-02T06:06:10Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Apollo_synthetic_diamond.jpg|Material Science: Synthetic diamonds are used for both cosmetic retail and in manufacturing cutting tools.<br />
File:Electrical_and_Mechanical_Services_Department_Headquarters_Photovoltaics.jpg|Power: Solar cells and power rely on the photovoltaic effect and the wave-particle duality of subatomic particles (like photons).<br />
File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg|Electronics: Silicon, a popular semiconductor used in electronics, is produced industrially in a single-crystal form.<br />
File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|Food processing: An atomic view of table salt. Purple particles are sodium (Na), and green particles are Chlorine (Cl).<br />
File:Nagasakibomb.jpg|Defense: Nuclear weapons were used during World War II.<br />
File:White_Matter_Connections_Obtained_with_MRI_Tractography.png|Medicine: MRI's provide doctors critical information without the risks of surgery.<br />
File:Plastic_household_items.jpg|Manufacturing: Household items made of plastic.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory]] and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7889Atomic Theory2015-12-02T06:01:50Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Apollo_synthetic_diamond.jpg|Material Science: Synthetic diamonds are used for both cosmetic retail and in manufacturing cutting tools.<br />
File:Nuclear_Power_Plant_Cattenom_a.png|Power: Nuclear plants provide a cleaner power source.<br />
File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg|Electronics: Silicon, a popular semiconductor used in electronics, is produced industrially in a single-crystal form.<br />
File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|Food processing: An atomic view of table salt. Purple particles are sodium (Na), and green particles are Chlorine (Cl).<br />
File:Nagasakibomb.jpg|Defense: Nuclear weapons were used during World War II.<br />
File:White_Matter_Connections_Obtained_with_MRI_Tractography.png|Medicine: MRI's provide doctors critical information without the risks of surgery.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory]] and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7872Atomic Theory2015-12-02T05:45:16Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
<div style="position: relative; width: 300px; height: 197px;"><a href="http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/hydrogen-atom/hydrogen-atom_en.jnlp" style="text-decoration: none;"><img src="http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/hydrogen-atom/hydrogen-atom-600.png" alt="Models of the Hydrogen Atom" style="border: none;" width="300" height="197"/><div style="position: absolute; width: 200px; height: 80px; left: 50px; top: 58px; background-color: #FFF; opacity: 0.6; filter: alpha(opacity = 60);"></div><table style="position: absolute; width: 200px; height: 80px; left: 50px; top: 58px;"><tr><td style="text-align: center; color: #000; font-size: 24px; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Click to Run</td></tr></table></a></div><br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Apollo_synthetic_diamond.jpg|Synthetic diamonds are used for both cosmetic retail and in manufacturing cutting tools.<br />
File:Nuclear_Power_Plant_Cattenom_a.png|Nuclear plants provide a cleaner power source.<br />
File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg|Silicon, a popular semiconductor used in electronics, is produced industrially in a single-crystal form.<br />
File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|An atomic view of table salt. Purple particles are sodium (Na), and green particles are Chlorine (Cl).<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory]] and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7870Atomic Theory2015-12-02T05:44:11Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Apollo_synthetic_diamond.jpg|Synthetic diamonds are used for both cosmetic retail and in manufacturing cutting tools.<br />
File:Nuclear_Power_Plant_Cattenom_a.png|Nuclear plants provide a cleaner power source.<br />
File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg|Silicon, a popular semiconductor used in electronics, is produced industrially in a single-crystal form.<br />
File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|An atomic view of table salt. Purple particles are sodium (Na), and green particles are Chlorine (Cl).<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory]] and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7867Atomic Theory2015-12-02T05:43:02Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Apollo_synthetic_diamond.jpg|Synthetic diamonds are used for both cosmetic retail and in manufacturing cutting tools.<br />
File:Nuclear_Power_Plant_Cattenom_a.png|Nuclear plants provide a cleaner power source.<br />
File:Monokristalines_Silizium_f%C3%BCr_die_Waferherstellung.jpg|Silicon, a popular semiconductor used in electronics, is produced industrially in a single-crystal form.<br />
File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|An atomic view of table salt. Purple particles are sodium (Na), and green particles are Chlorine (Cl).<br />
<\gallery><br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory]] and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7849Atomic Theory2015-12-02T05:33:37Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
Although one can argue physics applies to just about every aspect of life, and atomic theory is critical to understanding physics, atomic theory has directly influenced material science, power generation, electronics, and even food processing, to name a few. <br />
[[File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png|thumb|right|An atomic view of table salt.]]<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
*Physics Portal description of [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_molecular_theory Molecular Theory]] and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle Subatomic Particles]]<br />
*HyperPhysics summary of [[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quacon.html#quacon Quantum Physics]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7791Atomic Theory2015-12-02T05:15:06Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]] <br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
<br />
===Related Theories===<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
<br />
===Concept Application===<br />
*[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]], [[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]], [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
*[[Density]], [[Charge]], [[Spin]], and [[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]], [[Photons]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7775Atomic Theory2015-12-02T05:03:54Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>\text{O}_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7772Atomic Theory2015-12-02T05:02:11Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as <math>O_2</math>). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Introducing Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr, who was also one of Rutherford's students, suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===James Chadwick: Neutrons===<br />
James Chadwick won a Nobel Prize in 1935 for his discovery of the neutron. Starting with Rutherford's work, Chadwick continued experimenting to determine the excess mass in the nucleus that wasn't accounted for by protons. He found that neutrally charged particles, dubbed neutrons, were also inside the nucleus.<br />
<br />
===The Current Model: Quantum Physics and Electron Orbitals===<br />
Erwin Schrödinger examined the possibility that moving electrons behaved more like waves than particles, and published "Schrödinger's Equation" in 1926. Although this resolved many issues encountered with the Bohr model, it faced opposition from physicist [[Max Born]]. Instead, Born suggested a wave-particle duality of electrons, which stated that electrons could behave both like a wave and a particle. <br />
As electrons were now given properties of waves, it was impossible to simultaneously determine an electron's exact location and momentum around the nucleus. Werner Heisenberg, first described this phenomena in 1927, and it was later named the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This refuted the Bohr model of the atom, and replaced it with a pattern of probabilities as to where electrons are located around the nucleus. These patterns are referred to as atomic orbitals and come in a variety of shapes (basic spheres, rings, dumbbells, etc.) and the nucleus is always at the center.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212, like the ball-and-spring model of solids, point charges, and conductivity.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
*<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=7730Atomic Theory2015-12-02T04:38:50Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as O_2). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model and Electrons===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron in 1897, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
===Ernest Rutherford: Gold Foil Experiment and the Nucleus===<br />
In 1909, one of Thomson's students, [[Ernest Rutherford]], determined that the positive charge of atoms was located in a central nucleus. He shot small, positively charged alpha particles at thin sheets of gold foil and noted that some particles were sharply deflected. This deflection could only occur if the positive components of atoms were located in a small area, which Rutherford assumed to be the center. He proposed a planetary model of atoms where a cloud of electrons surrounded a central, positively charged nucleus.<br />
<br />
===Niels Bohr: Quantum Physics===<br />
[[File:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif|thumb|The Bohr model for a Hydrogen atom with its electron moving between energy levels]]<br />
As quantum mechanics progressed through the work of [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Max Planck]], [[Niels Bohr]] updated the atomic model in 1913 to account for quantum phenomena. Bohr suggested that electrostatic forces kept electrons in circular orbit around the positively charged central nucleus. In support of his theory, Bohr examined the behavior of electrons in hydrogen molecules and noted that they followed distinct energy levels. When an electron changed energy levels, it gained or lost energy, which could be emitted in the form of light. While the Bohr model holds true for hydrogen, it isn't accurate for multi-electron elements.<br />
<br />
===<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=6574Atomic Theory2015-12-01T21:16:49Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: The Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Dalton's concept of atoms and molecules]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as O_2). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
In 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
A Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water in 1827. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, Albert Einstein used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
===J.J. Thomson: The Plum-Pudding Model===<br />
[[File:Plum_pudding_model.svg|thumb|Tomson's Plum-Pudding Model]]<br />
Through his work with cathode rays, [[J.J. Thomson]] discovered the electron, and was the first to learn that atoms weren't actually "uncuttable" as initially thought. Thomson knew that atoms had a net neutral charge, but he only knew that negative particles existed. Thus, Thomson developed the "plum-pudding" model of negatively charged electrons floating in a sea of positive charge. (He likened the relationship of electrons to the sea of positive charge to that of plums in plum pudding.)<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
While classical physics applies to large objects moving much slower than the speed of light, modern physics deals with special cases of tiny objects, like atoms, subject to relativistic effects. Atomic theory is vital to understanding many quantum physics concepts that are covered in both Physics 2211 and 2212.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=6523Atomic Theory2015-12-01T20:59:26Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Caption]]<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as O_2). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
in 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
In 1827, a Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, Albert Einstein used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?<br />
#How is it connected to your major?<br />
#Is there an interesting industrial application?<br />
<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=6520Atomic Theory2015-12-01T20:58:59Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. In 1803, he proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
<br />
[[File:Daltons_symbols.gif|thumb|Caption]]<br />
<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as O_2). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's Law===<br />
in 1811, [[Amedeo Avogadro]] studied gases and determined that the amount of volume a gas occupies is not determined by the mass of the gas. This allowed Avogadro to take more accurate atomic measurements of gases than Dalton, and differentiate atoms from molecules.<br />
<br />
===Robert Brown: Brownian Motion===<br />
In 1827, a Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, Albert Einstein used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?<br />
#How is it connected to your major?<br />
#Is there an interesting industrial application?<br />
<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=6489Atomic Theory2015-12-01T20:50:00Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Atomic theory states that matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word "atom" comes from the Greek word for uncuttable, ''atomos''. Scientists later discovered that atoms were indeed able to be broken into subatomic, or elementary, particles including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic theory has evolved greatly over time, but the most recent model stems from quantum mechanics. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===John Dalton: Law of Multiple Proportions and Atomic Mass===<br />
'''Main Idea'''<br />
Working from the conservation of mass principle, chemist John Dalton determined the law of multiple proportions to understand how different elements combined in compounds. He proposed that each element of the periodic table was composed of identical components, atoms, that were unique to each element. He also suggested that these atoms were not created nor destroyed when one element was combined with another. Dalton's empirical, experimentally-based work marked the first scientific theory of the atom.<br />
'''Flaws'''<br />
Dalton proposed a list of atomic weights in 1805. However, Dalton failed to recognize natural tendencies of elements in nature (for example, oxygen typically exists as a diatomic molecule as O_2). Dalton was unable to distinguish between atoms and molecules (groups of atoms). <br />
<br />
===Amedeo Avogadro===<br />
'''Main Idea'''<br />
<br />
<br />
===Brownian Motion===<br />
Scientists began understanding the relationships between materials and patterns began emerging in the properties of chemicals in the mid-1800's. This culminated in the periodic table, which incorporated these patterns and discoveries, was developed by Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist. <br />
In 1827, a Scottish botanist, Robert Brown, studied the motion of tiny pollen particles in water. The particles followed complex paths, dubbed Brownian Motion. As early as 1905, Albert Einstein used Brownian Motion to predict the size of atoms and molecules.<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?<br />
#How is it connected to your major?<br />
#Is there an interesting industrial application?<br />
<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=6252Atomic Theory2015-12-01T19:30:58Z<p>Ccaggia3: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Short Description of Topic<br />
<br />
==The Main Idea==<br />
<br />
State, in your own words, the main idea for this topic<br />
Electric Field of Capacitor<br />
<br />
===A Mathematical Model===<br />
<br />
What are the mathematical equations that allow us to model this topic. For example <math>{\frac{d\vec{p}}{dt}}_{system} = \vec{F}_{net}</math> where '''p''' is the momentum of the system and '''F''' is the net force from the surroundings.<br />
<br />
===A Computational Model===<br />
<br />
How do we visualize or predict using this topic. Consider embedding some vpython code here [https://trinket.io/glowscript/31d0f9ad9e Teach hands-on with GlowScript]<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?<br />
#How is it connected to your major?<br />
#Is there an interesting industrial application?<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Put this idea in historical context. Give the reader the Who, What, When, Where, and Why.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=6251Atomic Theory2015-12-01T19:30:46Z<p>Ccaggia3: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Short Description of Topic<br />
<br />
==The Main Idea==<br />
<br />
State, in your own words, the main idea for this topic<br />
Electric Field of Capacitor<br />
<br />
===A Mathematical Model===<br />
<br />
What are the mathematical equations that allow us to model this topic. For example <math>{\frac{d\vec{p}}{dt}}_{system} = \vec{F}_{net}</math> where '''p''' is the momentum of the system and '''F''' is the net force from the surroundings.<br />
<br />
===A Computational Model===<br />
<br />
How do we visualize or predict using this topic. Consider embedding some vpython code here [https://trinket.io/glowscript/31d0f9ad9e Teach hands-on with GlowScript]<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?<br />
#How is it connected to your major?<br />
#Is there an interesting industrial application?<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Put this idea in historical context. Give the reader the Who, What, When, Where, and Why.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of [https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf OpenStax Textbook]<br />
Physics Portal page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=6246Atomic Theory2015-12-01T19:28:39Z<p>Ccaggia3: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Short Description of Topic<br />
<br />
==The Main Idea==<br />
<br />
State, in your own words, the main idea for this topic<br />
Electric Field of Capacitor<br />
<br />
===A Mathematical Model===<br />
<br />
What are the mathematical equations that allow us to model this topic. For example <math>{\frac{d\vec{p}}{dt}}_{system} = \vec{F}_{net}</math> where '''p''' is the momentum of the system and '''F''' is the net force from the surroundings.<br />
<br />
===A Computational Model===<br />
<br />
How do we visualize or predict using this topic. Consider embedding some vpython code here [https://trinket.io/glowscript/31d0f9ad9e Teach hands-on with GlowScript]<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?<br />
#How is it connected to your major?<br />
#Is there an interesting industrial application?<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Put this idea in historical context. Give the reader the Who, What, When, Where, and Why.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf <br />
Physics Portal page on [Atomic Theory https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=6244Atomic Theory2015-12-01T19:28:00Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Short Description of Topic<br />
<br />
==The Main Idea==<br />
<br />
State, in your own words, the main idea for this topic<br />
Electric Field of Capacitor<br />
<br />
===A Mathematical Model===<br />
<br />
What are the mathematical equations that allow us to model this topic. For example <math>{\frac{d\vec{p}}{dt}}_{system} = \vec{F}_{net}</math> where '''p''' is the momentum of the system and '''F''' is the net force from the surroundings.<br />
<br />
===A Computational Model===<br />
<br />
How do we visualize or predict using this topic. Consider embedding some vpython code here [https://trinket.io/glowscript/31d0f9ad9e Teach hands-on with GlowScript]<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?<br />
#How is it connected to your major?<br />
#Is there an interesting industrial application?<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Put this idea in historical context. Give the reader the Who, What, When, Where, and Why.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf <br />
Physics Portal page on Atomic Theory[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=6241Atomic Theory2015-12-01T19:27:09Z<p>Ccaggia3: </p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Short Description of Topic<br />
<br />
==The Main Idea==<br />
<br />
State, in your own words, the main idea for this topic<br />
Electric Field of Capacitor<br />
<br />
===A Mathematical Model===<br />
<br />
What are the mathematical equations that allow us to model this topic. For example <math>{\frac{d\vec{p}}{dt}}_{system} = \vec{F}_{net}</math> where '''p''' is the momentum of the system and '''F''' is the net force from the surroundings.<br />
<br />
===A Computational Model===<br />
<br />
How do we visualize or predict using this topic. Consider embedding some vpython code here [https://trinket.io/glowscript/31d0f9ad9e Teach hands-on with GlowScript]<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?<br />
#How is it connected to your major?<br />
#Is there an interesting industrial application?<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Put this idea in historical context. Give the reader the Who, What, When, Where, and Why.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Chapter 30 of https://openstaxcollege.org/files/textbook_version/hi_res_pdf/9/CollegePhysics-OP.pdf <br />
Physics Portal page on [Atomic Theory]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Theory]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Atomic_Theory&diff=6199Atomic Theory2015-12-01T19:15:57Z<p>Ccaggia3: Created page with "Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3) Short Description of Topic ==The Main Idea== State, in your own words, the main idea for this topic Electric Field of Capacitor ===A..."</p>
<hr />
<div>Claimed by: Caitlyn Caggia (ccaggia3)<br />
<br />
Short Description of Topic<br />
<br />
==The Main Idea==<br />
<br />
State, in your own words, the main idea for this topic<br />
Electric Field of Capacitor<br />
<br />
===A Mathematical Model===<br />
<br />
What are the mathematical equations that allow us to model this topic. For example <math>{\frac{d\vec{p}}{dt}}_{system} = \vec{F}_{net}</math> where '''p''' is the momentum of the system and '''F''' is the net force from the surroundings.<br />
<br />
===A Computational Model===<br />
<br />
How do we visualize or predict using this topic. Consider embedding some vpython code here [https://trinket.io/glowscript/31d0f9ad9e Teach hands-on with GlowScript]<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
<br />
Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible<br />
<br />
===Simple===<br />
===Middling===<br />
===Difficult===<br />
<br />
==Connectedness==<br />
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?<br />
#How is it connected to your major?<br />
#Is there an interesting industrial application?<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Put this idea in historical context. Give the reader the Who, What, When, Where, and Why.<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?<br />
<br />
===Further reading===<br />
<br />
Books, Articles or other print media on this topic<br />
<br />
===External links===<br />
<br />
Internet resources on this topic<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
This section contains the the references you used while writing this page<br />
<br />
[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]</div>Ccaggia3http://www.physicsbook.gatech.edu/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=6197Main Page2015-12-01T19:15:21Z<p>Ccaggia3: /* Theory */</p>
<hr />
<div>__NOTOC__<br />
Welcome to the Georgia Tech Wiki for Intro Physics. This resources was created so that students can contribute and curate content to help those with limited or no access to a textbook. When reading this website, please correct any errors you may come across. If you read something that isn't clear, please consider revising it!<br />
<br />
Looking to make a contribution?<br />
#Pick a specific topic from intro physics<br />
#Add that topic, as a link to a new page, under the appropriate category listed below by editing this page.<br />
#Copy and paste the default [[Template]] into your new page and start editing.<br />
<br />
Please remember that this is not a textbook and you are not limited to expressing your ideas with only text and equations. Whenever possible embed: pictures, videos, diagrams, simulations, computational models (e.g. Glowscript), and whatever content you think makes learning physics easier for other students.<br />
<br />
== Source Material ==<br />
All of the content added to this resource must be in the public domain or similar free resource. If you are unsure about a source, contact the original author for permission. That said, there is a surprisingly large amount of introductory physics content scattered across the web. Here is an incomplete list of intro physics resources (please update as needed).<br />
* A physics resource written by experts for an expert audience [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Physics Physics Portal]<br />
* A wiki book on modern physics [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Modern_Physics Modern Physics Wiki]<br />
* The MIT open courseware for intro physics [http://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-8-002-a-wikitextbook-for-introductory-mechanics-fall-2009/index.htm MITOCW Wiki]<br />
* An online concept map of intro physics [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html HyperPhysics]<br />
* Interactive physics simulations [https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics PhET]<br />
* OpenStax algebra based intro physics textbook [https://openstaxcollege.org/textbooks/college-physics College Physics]<br />
* The Open Source Physics project is a collection of online physics resources [http://www.opensourcephysics.org/ OSP]<br />
* A resource guide compiled by the [http://www.aapt.org/ AAPT] for educators [http://www.compadre.org/ ComPADRE]<br />
<br />
== Organizing Categories ==<br />
These are the broad, overarching categories, that we cover in two semester of introductory physics. You can add subcategories or make a new category as needed. A single topic should direct readers to a page in one of these catagories.<br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
===Interactions===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
*[[Kinds of Matter]]<br />
**[[Ball and Spring Model of Matter]]<br />
*[[Detecting Interactions]]<br />
*[[Fundamental Interactions]] <br />
*[[System & Surroundings]] <br />
*[[Newton's First Law of Motion]]<br />
*[[Newton's Second Law of Motion]]<br />
*[[Newton's Third Law of Motion]]<br />
*[[Gravitational Force]]<br />
*[[Electric Force]]<br />
*[[Terminal Speed]]<br />
*[[Simple Harmonic Motion]]<br />
*[[Speed and Velocity]]<br />
*[[Electric Polarization]]<br />
*[[Perpetual Freefall (Orbit)]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Theory===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
*[[Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity]]<br />
*[[Quantum Theory]]<br />
*[[Big Bang Theory]]<br />
*[[Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory]]<br />
*[[Atomic Theory]]<br />
<br />
<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Notable Scientists===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
*[[Christian Doppler]]<br />
*[[Albert Einstein]]<br />
*[[Ernest Rutherford]]<br />
*[[Joseph Henry]]<br />
*[[Michael Faraday]]<br />
*[[J.J. Thomson]]<br />
*[[James Maxwell]]<br />
*[[Robert Hooke]]<br />
*[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]<br />
*[[Nikola Tesla]]<br />
*[[Andre Marie Ampere]]<br />
*[[Sir Isaac Newton]]<br />
*[[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]<br />
*[[Oliver Heaviside]]<br />
*[[Rosalind Franklin]]<br />
*[[Erwin Schrödinger]]<br />
*[[Enrico Fermi]]<br />
*[[Robert J. Van de Graaff]]<br />
*[[Charles de Coulomb]]<br />
*[[Hans Christian Ørsted]]<br />
*[[Philo Farnsworth]]<br />
*[[Niels Bohr]]<br />
*[[Georg Ohm]]<br />
*[[Galileo Galilei]]<br />
*[[Gustav Kirchhoff]]<br />
*[[Max Planck]]<br />
*[[Heinrich Hertz]]<br />
*[[Edwin Hall]]<br />
*[[James Watt]]<br />
*[[Count Alessandro Volta]]<br />
*[[Josiah Willard Gibbs]]<br />
*[[Richard Phillips Feynman]]<br />
*[[Sir David Brewster]]<br />
*[[Daniel Bernoulli]]<br />
*[[William Thomson]]<br />
*[[Leonhard Euler]]<br />
*[[Robert Fox Bacher]]<br />
*[[Stephen Hawking]]<br />
*[[Amedeo Avogadro]]<br />
*[[Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen]]<br />
*[[Pierre Laplace]]<br />
*[[Thomas Edison]]<br />
*[[Hendrik Lorentz]]<br />
*[[Jean-Baptiste Biot]]<br />
*[[Lise Meitner]]<br />
*[[Lisa Randall]]<br />
*[[Felix Savart]]<br />
*[[Heinrich Lenz]]<br />
*[[Max Born]]<br />
*[[Archimedes]]<br />
*[[Jean Baptiste Biot]]<br />
*[[Carl Sagan]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Properties of Matter===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
*[[Mass]]<br />
*[[Velocity]]<br />
*[[Relative Velocity]]<br />
*[[Density]]<br />
*[[Charge]]<br />
*[[Spin]]<br />
*[[SI Units]]<br />
*[[Heat Capacity]]<br />
*[[Specific Heat]]<br />
*[[Wavelength]]<br />
*[[Conductivity]]<br />
*[[Weight]]<br />
*[[Boiling Point]]<br />
*[[Melting Point]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Contact Interactions===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
* [[Young's Modulus]]<br />
* [[Friction]]<br />
* [[Tension]]<br />
* [[Hooke's Law]]<br />
*[[Centripetal Force and Curving Motion]]<br />
*[[Compression or Normal Force]]<br />
* [[Length and Stiffness of an Interatomic Bond]]<br />
* [[Speed of Sound in a Solid]]<br />
* [[Iterative Prediction of Spring-Mass System]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Momentum===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
* [[Vectors]]<br />
* [[Kinematics]]<br />
* [[Conservation of Momentum]]<br />
* [[Predicting Change in multiple dimensions]]<br />
* [[Momentum Principle]]<br />
* [[Impulse Momentum]]<br />
* [[Curving Motion]]<br />
* [[Multi-particle Analysis of Momentum]]<br />
* [[Iterative Prediction]]<br />
* [[Newton's Laws and Linear Momentum]]<br />
* [[Net Force]]<br />
* [[Center of Mass]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Angular Momentum===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
* [[The Moments of Inertia]]<br />
* [[Moment of Inertia for a ring]]<br />
* [[Rotation]]<br />
* [[Torque]]<br />
* [[Systems with Zero Torque]]<br />
* [[Systems with Nonzero Torque]]<br />
* [[Right Hand Rule]]<br />
* [[Angular Velocity]]<br />
* [[Predicting the Position of a Rotating System]]<br />
* [[Translational Angular Momentum]]<br />
* [[The Angular Momentum Principle]]<br />
* [[Rotational Angular Momentum]]<br />
* [[Total Angular Momentum]]<br />
<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Energy===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
*[[The Photoelectric Effect]]<br />
*[[Photons]]<br />
*[[The Energy Principle]]<br />
*[[Predicting Change]]<br />
*[[Rest Mass Energy]]<br />
*[[Kinetic Energy]]<br />
*[[Potential Energy]]<br />
*[[Work]]<br />
*[[Thermal Energy]]<br />
*[[Conservation of Energy]]<br />
*[[Electric Potential]]<br />
*[[Energy Transfer due to a Temperature Difference]]<br />
*[[Gravitational Potential Energy]]<br />
*[[Point Particle Systems]]<br />
*[[Real Systems]]<br />
*[[Spring Potential Energy]]<br />
**[[Ball and Spring Model]]<br />
*[[Internal Energy]]<br />
**[[Potential Energy of a Pair of Neutral Atoms]]<br />
*[[Translational, Rotational and Vibrational Energy]]<br />
*[[Franck-Hertz Experiment]]<br />
*[[Power]]<br />
*[[Energy Graphs]]<br />
*[[Air Resistance]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels]]<br />
*[[Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy]]<br />
*[[Specific Heat Capacity]]<br />
*[[Electronic Energy Levels and Photons]]<br />
*[[Energy Density]]<br />
*[[Bohr Model]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Collisions===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
*[[Collisions]]<br />
*[[Maximally Inelastic Collision]]<br />
*[[Elastic Collisions]]<br />
*[[Inelastic Collisions]]<br />
*[[Head-on Collision of Equal Masses]]<br />
*[[Head-on Collision of Unequal Masses]]<br />
*[[Rutherford Experiment and Atomic Collisions]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Fields===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
* [[Electric Field]] of a<br />
** [[Point Charge]]<br />
** [[Electric Dipole]]<br />
** [[Capacitor]]<br />
** [[Charged Rod]]<br />
** [[Charged Ring]]<br />
** [[Charged Disk]]<br />
** [[Charged Spherical Shell]]<br />
** [[Charged Cylinder]]<br />
**[[A Solid Sphere Charged Throughout Its Volume]]<br />
*[[Electric Potential]] <br />
**[[Potential Difference Path Independence]]<br />
**[[Potential Difference in a Uniform Field]]<br />
**[[Potential Difference of point charge in a non-Uniform Field]]<br />
**[[Sign of Potential Difference]]<br />
**[[Potential Difference in an Insulator]]<br />
**[[Energy Density and Electric Field]]<br />
*[[Electric Force]]<br />
*[[Polarization]]<br />
*[[Charge Motion in Metals]]<br />
*[[Charge Transfer]]<br />
*[[Magnetic Field]]<br />
**[[Right-Hand Rule]]<br />
**[[Direction of Magnetic Field]]<br />
**[[Magnetic Field of a Long Straight Wire]]<br />
**[[Magnetic Field of a Loop]]<br />
**[[Magnetic Field of a Solenoid]]<br />
**[[Bar Magnet]]<br />
**[[Magnetic Force]]<br />
**[[Hall Effect]]<br />
**[[Lorentz Force]]<br />
**[[Biot-Savart Law]]<br />
**[[Biot-Savart Law for Currents]]<br />
**[[Integration Techniques for Magnetic Field]]<br />
**[[Sparks in Air]]<br />
**[[Motional Emf]]<br />
**[[Detecting a Magnetic Field]]<br />
**[[Moving Point Charge]]<br />
**[[Non-Coulomb Electric Field]]<br />
**[[Motors and Generators]]<br />
**[[Solenoid Applications]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Simple Circuits===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
*[[Components]]<br />
*[[Steady State]]<br />
*[[Non Steady State]]<br />
*[[Thin and Thick Wires]]<br />
*[[Node Rule]]<br />
*[[Loop Rule]]<br />
*[[Electrical Resistance]]<br />
*[[Power in a circuit]]<br />
*[[Ammeters,Voltmeters,Ohmmeters]]<br />
*[[Current]]<br />
*[[Ohm's Law]]<br />
*[[Series Circuits]]<br />
*[[RC]]<br />
*[[Circular Loop of Wire]]<br />
*[[RL Circuit]]<br />
*[[LC Circuit]]<br />
*[[Surface Charge Distributions]]<br />
*[[Feedback]]<br />
*[[Transformers]]<br />
*[[Resistors and Conductivity]]<br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Maxwell's Equations===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
*[[Gauss's Flux Theorem]]<br />
**[[Electric Fields]]<br />
**[[Magnetic Fields]]<br />
*[[Ampere's Law]]<br />
**[[Magnetic Field of Coaxial Cable Using Ampere's Law]]<br />
*[[Faraday's Law]]<br />
**[[Curly Electric Fields]]<br />
**[[Inductance]]<br />
***[[Transformers]]<br />
***[[Energy Density]]<br />
**[[Lenz's Law]]<br />
***[[Lenz Effect and the Jumping Ring]]<br />
**[[Motional Emf using Faraday's Law]]<br />
*[[Ampere-Maxwell Law]]<br />
*[[Superconductors]]<br />
**[[Meissner effect]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Radiation===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
*[[Producing a Radiative Electric Field]]<br />
*[[Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Radiaton]]<br />
*[[Lenses]]<br />
*[[Energy and Momentum Analysis in Radiation]]<br />
*[[Electromagnetic Propagation]]<br />
**[[Wavelength and Frequency]]<br />
*[[Snell's Law]]<br />
*[[Light Propagation Through a Medium]]<br />
*[[Light Scaterring: Why is the Sky Blue]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><br />
<br />
===Sound===<br />
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"><br />
*[[Doppler Effect]]<br />
*[[Nature, Behavior, and Properties of Sound]]<br />
*[[Resonance]]<br />
*[[Sound Barrier]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
*[[blahb]]<br />
</div><br />
</div><br />
<br />
== Resources ==<br />
* Commonly used wiki commands [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cheatsheet Wiki Cheatsheet]<br />
* A guide to representing equations in math mode [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Displaying_a_formula Wiki Math Mode]<br />
* A page to keep track of all the physics [[Constants]]<br />
* An overview of [[VPython]]</div>Ccaggia3