Physics Book - User contributions [en]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:54:00Z

Vramesh32:

(Vishesh Ramesh)

Particle Physics and the Standard Model pertain to elementary particles which are particles that are composed of no other particles.

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a massless carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons. Although these do not hold mass, they do hold energy(seeing as they carry force) and therefore mass can be calculated by mass-energy equivalence, which is an exceptionally important idea because it enables scientists to perform a variety of calculations on these particles.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. The two ''W'' bosons are responsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====
Gravitons are the hypothesized particle to carry the fundamental force of gravity. Yet to be discovered, they are expected to have a spin of 2, no mass, have light-particle duality, and travel at the speed of light.

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===
The Higgs Boson, first theorized in the 1960's along with the higgs field (a field to exist everywhere in the universe at once), was confirmed recently to exist through research conducted at the Large Hadron Collider. Termed "the God particle", the higgs boson has no spin and is extremely short-lived before decaying. This particle still is under the spotlight in particle physics, as much is theorized about the higgs boson to complete the standard model and particle physics theory, but yet to be confirmed. The higgs boson is known as a scalar boson because it is theorized to be the particle that gives other particles mass via the higgs field. This is a process that a lot of research is looking into today.

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

http://www.livescience.com/34045-higgs-particle-mass.html

http://www.particleadventure.org/other/history/

http://www.particleadventure.org/

http://home.cern/about/physics/z-boson

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/particles/lepton.html

==References==

http://www.livescience.com/34045-higgs-particle-mass.html

http://www.particleadventure.org/other/history/

http://www.particleadventure.org/

http://home.cern/about/physics/z-boson

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/particles/lepton.html

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:52:01Z

Vramesh32: /* References */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a massless carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons. Although these do not hold mass, they do hold energy(seeing as they carry force) and therefore mass can be calculated by mass-energy equivalence, which is an exceptionally important idea because it enables scientists to perform a variety of calculations on these particles.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. The two ''W'' bosons are responsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====
Gravitons are the hypothesized particle to carry the fundamental force of gravity. Yet to be discovered, they are expected to have a spin of 2, no mass, have light-particle duality, and travel at the speed of light.

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===
The Higgs Boson, first theorized in the 1960's along with the higgs field (a field to exist everywhere in the universe at once), was confirmed recently to exist through research conducted at the Large Hadron Collider. Termed "the God particle", the higgs boson has no spin and is extremely short-lived before decaying. This particle still is under the spotlight in particle physics, as much is theorized about the higgs boson to complete the standard model and particle physics theory, but yet to be confirmed. The higgs boson is known as a scalar boson because it is theorized to be the particle that gives other particles mass via the higgs field. This is a process that a lot of research is looking into today.

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

http://www.livescience.com/34045-higgs-particle-mass.html

http://www.particleadventure.org/other/history/

http://www.particleadventure.org/

http://home.cern/about/physics/z-boson

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/particles/lepton.html

==References==

http://www.livescience.com/34045-higgs-particle-mass.html

http://www.particleadventure.org/other/history/

http://www.particleadventure.org/

http://home.cern/about/physics/z-boson

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/particles/lepton.html

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:51:15Z

Vramesh32: /* External links */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a massless carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons. Although these do not hold mass, they do hold energy(seeing as they carry force) and therefore mass can be calculated by mass-energy equivalence, which is an exceptionally important idea because it enables scientists to perform a variety of calculations on these particles.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. The two ''W'' bosons are responsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====
Gravitons are the hypothesized particle to carry the fundamental force of gravity. Yet to be discovered, they are expected to have a spin of 2, no mass, have light-particle duality, and travel at the speed of light.

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===
The Higgs Boson, first theorized in the 1960's along with the higgs field (a field to exist everywhere in the universe at once), was confirmed recently to exist through research conducted at the Large Hadron Collider. Termed "the God particle", the higgs boson has no spin and is extremely short-lived before decaying. This particle still is under the spotlight in particle physics, as much is theorized about the higgs boson to complete the standard model and particle physics theory, but yet to be confirmed. The higgs boson is known as a scalar boson because it is theorized to be the particle that gives other particles mass via the higgs field. This is a process that a lot of research is looking into today.

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

http://www.livescience.com/34045-higgs-particle-mass.html

http://www.particleadventure.org/other/history/

http://www.particleadventure.org/

http://home.cern/about/physics/z-boson

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/particles/lepton.html

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:49:24Z

Vramesh32: /* Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a massless carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons. Although these do not hold mass, they do hold energy(seeing as they carry force) and therefore mass can be calculated by mass-energy equivalence, which is an exceptionally important idea because it enables scientists to perform a variety of calculations on these particles.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. The two ''W'' bosons are responsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====
Gravitons are the hypothesized particle to carry the fundamental force of gravity. Yet to be discovered, they are expected to have a spin of 2, no mass, have light-particle duality, and travel at the speed of light.

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===
The Higgs Boson, first theorized in the 1960's along with the higgs field (a field to exist everywhere in the universe at once), was confirmed recently to exist through research conducted at the Large Hadron Collider. Termed "the God particle", the higgs boson has no spin and is extremely short-lived before decaying. This particle still is under the spotlight in particle physics, as much is theorized about the higgs boson to complete the standard model and particle physics theory, but yet to be confirmed. The higgs boson is known as a scalar boson because it is theorized to be the particle that gives other particles mass via the higgs field. This is a process that a lot of research is looking into today.

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:47:45Z

Vramesh32: /* Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a massless carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons. Although these do not hold mass, they do hold energy(seeing as they carry force) and therefore mass can be calculated by mass-energy equivalence, which is an exceptionally important idea because it enables scientists to perform a variety of calculations on these particles.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. The two ''W'' bosons are responsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====
Gravitons are the hypothesized particle to carry the fundamental force of gravity. Yet to be discovered, they are expected to have a spin of 2, no mass, have light-particle duality, and travel at the speed of light.

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===
The Higgs Boson, first theorized in the 1960's along with the higgs field (a field to exist everywhere in the universe at once), was confirmed recently to exist through research conducted at the Large Hadron Collider. Termed "the God particle", the higgs boson has no spin and is extremely short-lived before decaying. This particle still is under the spotlight in particle physics, as much is theorized about the higgs boson to complete the standard model and particle physics theory, but yet to be confirmed. The higgs boson is known as a scalar boson because it is theorized to be the particle that gives other particles mass.

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:42:28Z

Vramesh32: /* Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a massless carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons. Although these do not hold mass, they do hold energy(seeing as they carry force) and therefore mass can be calculated by mass-energy equivalence, which is an exceptionally important idea because it enables scientists to perform a variety of calculations on these particles.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. The two ''W'' bosons are responsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====
Gravitons are the hypothesized particle to carry the fundamental force of gravity. Yet to be discovered, they are expected to have a spin of 2, no mass, have light-particle duality, and travel at the speed of light.

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===
The Higgs Boson, first theorized in the 1960's, was confirmed recently to exist through research conducted at the Large Hadron Collider. Termed "the God particle", the higgs boson has extremely low mass, no spin, and is extremely short-lived before decaying. This particle still is under the spotlight in particle physics, as much is theorized about the higgs boson to complete the standard model and particle physics theory, but yet to be confirmed.

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:40:51Z

Vramesh32: /* W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. The two ''W'' bosons are repsonsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====
Gravitons are the hypothesized particle to carry the fundamental force of gravity. Yet to be discovered, they are expected to have a spin of 2, no mass, have light-particle duality, and travel at the speed of light.

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===
The Higgs Boson, first theorized in the 1960's, was confirmed recently to exist through research conducted at the Large Hadron Collider. Termed "the God particle", the higgs boson has extremely low mass, no spin, and is extremely short-lived before decaying. This particle still is under the spotlight in particle physics, as much is theorized about the higgs boson to complete the standard model and particle physics theory, but yet to be confirmed.

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:35:31Z

Vramesh32:

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. These bosons are not massless, but have some mass. The two ''W'' bosons are repsonsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====
Gravitons are the hypothesized particle to carry the fundamental force of gravity. Yet to be discovered, they are expected to have a spin of 2, no mass, have light-particle duality, and travel at the speed of light.

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===
The Higgs Boson, first theorized in the 1960's, was confirmed recently to exist through research conducted at the Large Hadron Collider. Termed "the God particle", the higgs boson has extremely low mass, no spin, and is extremely short-lived before decaying. This particle still is under the spotlight in particle physics, as much is theorized about the higgs boson to complete the standard model and particle physics theory, but yet to be confirmed.

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:34:26Z

Vramesh32: /* Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. These bosons are not massless, but have some mass. The two ''W'' bosons are repsonsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====
Gravitons are the hypothesized particle to carry the fundamental force of gravity. Yet to be discovered, they are expected to have a spin of 2, no mass, have light-particle duality, and travel at the speed of light.

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===
The Higgs Boson, first theorized in the 1960's, was confirmed recently to exist through research conducted at the Large Hadron Collider. Termed "the God particle", the higgs boson has extremely low mass, no spin, and is extremely short-lived before decaying. This particle still is under the spotlight in particle physics, as much is theorized about the higgs boson to complete the standard model and particle physics theory, but yet to be confirmed.

==Examples==

Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible

===Simple===
===Middling===
===Difficult===

==Connectedness==
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?
#How is it connected to your major?
#Is there an interesting industrial application?

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:23:28Z

Vramesh32: /* Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. These bosons are not massless, but have some mass. The two ''W'' bosons are repsonsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====
Gravitons are the hypothesized particle to carry the fundamental force of gravity. Yet to be discovered, they are expected to have a spin of 2, no mass, have light-particle duality, and travel at the speed of light.

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===

==Examples==

Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible

===Simple===
===Middling===
===Difficult===

==Connectedness==
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?
#How is it connected to your major?
#Is there an interesting industrial application?

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:21:53Z

Vramesh32: /* Gauge Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a carrier particle. These particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. These bosons are not massless, but have some mass. The two ''W'' bosons are repsonsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===

==Examples==

Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible

===Simple===
===Middling===
===Difficult===

==Connectedness==
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?
#How is it connected to your major?
#Is there an interesting industrial application?

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:21:39Z

Vramesh32: /* W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a carrier particle. These massless particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
There exist three gauge bosons that mediate the weak force between ''W'' and ''Z'' Bosons: ''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''. The weak force, or weak nuclear force, is the interaction responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles, which plays a crucial role in nuclear fission. These bosons are not massless, but have some mass. The two ''W'' bosons are repsonsible for the absorption and emission of neutrinos in nuclear decay, while the ''Z'' boson is responsible for the transfer of momentum, spin, and energy when the neutrinos scatter after decay.

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===

==Examples==

Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible

===Simple===
===Middling===
===Difficult===

==Connectedness==
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?
#How is it connected to your major?
#Is there an interesting industrial application?

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:06:23Z

Vramesh32: /* W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a carrier particle. These massless particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
''W+'', ''W−'', and ''Z0''

====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===

==Examples==

Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible

===Simple===
===Middling===
===Difficult===

==Connectedness==
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?
#How is it connected to your major?
#Is there an interesting industrial application?

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T21:03:22Z

Vramesh32: /* Gauge Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces===
There are four fundamental forces: electromagnetic force, gravity, strong force, and weak force. Each of these are hypothesized to have a carrier particle. These massless particles are classified together as Gauge Bosons.

[[File:Forces_and_carriers.jpg|400px]]

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===

==Examples==

Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible

===Simple===
===Middling===
===Difficult===

==Connectedness==
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?
#How is it connected to your major?
#Is there an interesting industrial application?

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

File:Forces and carriers.jpg

2015-12-05T21:01:29Z

Vramesh32:

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:59:25Z

Vramesh32: /* Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces===

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations, or colors, of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===

==Examples==

Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible

===Simple===
===Middling===
===Difficult===

==Connectedness==
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?
#How is it connected to your major?
#Is there an interesting industrial application?

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:58:33Z

Vramesh32: /* Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces===

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form. There are altogether eight variations of the gluon.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===

==Examples==

Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible

===Simple===
===Middling===
===Difficult===

==Connectedness==
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?
#How is it connected to your major?
#Is there an interesting industrial application?

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:58:09Z

Vramesh32: /* Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces===

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
Gluons mediate the strong force, which is the force between quarks. The attraction between quarks, strong force, is what allows quarks to come together to form hadrons, which can be classified into baryons(combinations of three quarks) and mesons(combinations of a quark and an antiquark). The most well-known baryons are protons and neutrons which form the atomic nucleus. Gluons and the strong force are reponsible for both the attraction between neutrons and protons, and the attraction between quarks that allow neutrons and protons to form.

====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===

==Examples==

Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible

===Simple===
===Middling===
===Difficult===

==Connectedness==
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?
#How is it connected to your major?
#Is there an interesting industrial application?

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:46:55Z

Vramesh32: /* Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force */

Vishesh Ramesh on elementary particles and particle theory

Short Description of Topic

==History==

Particle physics, and subatomic physics, has had a long history with many different and diverse scientists playing a part. The idea that matter is composed of elementary particles can be traced as far back as the 6th century B.C.E, and to scientists and philosophers of ancient Greece, India, the Middle East, and Western Europe. These early hypotheses rose from philosophical speculation and reasoning as opposed to experimentation.

John Dalton in the 19th century provided his theory of the atom, which was then believed to be the utmost fundamental particle. By the end of the 19th century, however, it was discovered that atoms were composed of yet smaller particles, when the electron and its charge was discovered via experimentation. Ernest Rutherford’s gold scattering experiment confirmed the existence of the nucleus and the proton, and further experimentation in the early 20th century led to the confirmation of the existence of the neutron.

By the middle of the 20th century, even smaller particles composing atomic nuclei were hypothesized, as the nuclear strong force was also discovered and established as a fundamental force alongside gravity and electromagnetism. Around this time, the understanding of fundamental particles also deepened, particularly with Erwin Schrödinger’s work in quantum physics and the establishment of wave-particle duality of the photon and Einstein’s work on the photoelectric effect showing photons to carry electromagnetic force.

In the mid-20th century, Marcus Fierz and Wolfgang Pauli formulated and refined the spin-statistics theorem, establishing bosons and fermions. In the time period between 1935 and 2000, positrons, muons, mesons, leptons, baryons, bosons, and neutrinos were discovered at a breathtaking and chaotic pace. The Standard Model is a theory that has its origins in this time period, born of a desire to unite these new subatomic fundamental particles and the four fundamental forces, and in the process of creating it, several more particles were hypothesized and most later discovered. The current formulation of the Standard Model was finalized in the 1970’s.

==Elementary Particles==
Elementary particles can first be grouped into fermions, particles with mass composing matter and antimatter, and gauge bosons, force carrier particles with no mass. In addition to these two groups, there lies the Higgs Boson in a category of its own, classified as a as a scalar boson.

[[File:Standard_model.png|300px]]

===Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter===

Fermions are all fundamental particles that compose matter or antimatter, and therefore have mass. All matter is composed of quarks and leptons, which share a spin of +1/2 in common. Antimatter is composed purely of antiquarks and antileptons.

====Matter====
[[File:Matter_-_leptons_and_quarks.jpg|500px]]
=====''Quarks''=====

There are six types of quarks: Up, Down, Charm, Strange, Top, Bottom. All six quarks have a spin of +1/2. Up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while down, strange, and bottom quarks have a charge of -1/3.

=====''Leptons''=====
Leptons are particles with spins of 1/2. Leptons can be broken down into two major classes: charged leptons and neutral leptons. The electron, muon, and tau are the charged electrons, all with a charge of -1. Each of these have a respective neutral lepton, which are termed neutrinos. The speed at which neutrinos travel is hotly contested because it's extremely important and extremely difficult to measure. Many scientists believe neutrinos travel at the speed of light, which would pose a challenge to the idea that only massless particles can travel at the maximum speed of the universe which is the speed of light.

====Antimatter====
As matter is composed of quarks and leptons, antimatter is composed of antiquarks and antileptons. The antiparticle counterparts of quarks and leptons are mostly identical in property magnitudes but opposite in sign.

=====''Antiquarks''=====
For the six flavors of quarks, there exist antiquarks. Antiquarks have the same magnitude in properties as their quark counterparts, but flipped signs. The charges of each antiquark is the negative of its counterpart's charge.

=====''Antileptons''=====
For every charged lepton flavor there is a corresponding antilepton flavor, so there exist the anti electron, commonly known as the positron, the antimuon, and the antitau. There is still uncertainty however as to whether or not neutrinos have antiparticles. The electron antineutrino, muon antineutrino, and tau antineutrino, are all theorized, but some particle physicists argue that neutrinos may be their own antiparticles. There is yet much research to be done on neutrinos to further understand them.

===Gauge Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces===

====Photon: Carrier of Electromagentic Force====
The photon is the guage boson responsible for mediating the electromagentic force. Electromagnetism and the photon are the most well understood force and respective carrier. The photon's mediation of the electromagnetic force can best be explained by the photoelectric effect.

====Gluons: Carrier of Strong Force====
====W and Z Bosons: Carrier of Weak Force====
====Graviton: (Hypothesized) Carrier of Gravitational Force====

===Scalar Bosons: The Higgs Boson===

==Examples==

Be sure to show all steps in your solution and include diagrams whenever possible

===Simple===
===Middling===
===Difficult===

==Connectedness==
#How is this topic connected to something that you are interested in?
#How is it connected to your major?
#Is there an interesting industrial application?

== See also ==

Are there related topics or categories in this wiki resource for the curious reader to explore? How does this topic fit into that context?

===Further reading===

Books, Articles or other print media on this topic

===External links===

Internet resources on this topic

==References==

This section contains the the references you used while writing this page

[[Category:Which Category did you place this in?]]

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:34:24Z

Vramesh32: /* Elementary Particles */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:33:58Z

Vramesh32: /* Guage Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:33:16Z

Vramesh32: /* Antileptons */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:33:04Z

Vramesh32: /* Antiquarks */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:32:46Z

Vramesh32: /* Matter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:31:42Z

Vramesh32: /* Matter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:31:06Z

Vramesh32: /* Fermions: Particles of Matter and Antimatter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:30:26Z

Vramesh32: /* Matter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:24:13Z

Vramesh32: /* Antimatter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:23:47Z

Vramesh32: /* Matter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:22:57Z

Vramesh32: /* Elementary Particles */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:14:35Z

Vramesh32: /* Bosons: Massless Carriers of Fundamental Forces */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:09:33Z

Vramesh32: /* Elementary Particles */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:06:41Z

Vramesh32: /* Elementary Models */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:05:13Z

Vramesh32: /* Elementary Models */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:05:00Z

Vramesh32:

File:Standard model.png

2015-12-05T20:03:57Z

Vramesh32:

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:02:35Z

Vramesh32: /* Quarks */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T20:02:14Z

Vramesh32: /* Elementary Models */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T19:52:40Z

Vramesh32: /* Antiquarks */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T19:42:54Z

Vramesh32: /* Matter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T19:32:50Z

Vramesh32: /* Leptons */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T19:17:20Z

Vramesh32: /* Matter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T19:17:02Z

Vramesh32:

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T19:16:09Z

Vramesh32: /* Fermions: Particles of Matter */

File:Matter - leptons and quarks.jpg

2015-12-05T19:14:33Z

Vramesh32:

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T18:58:42Z

Vramesh32: /* Fermions: Particles of Matter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T18:57:16Z

Vramesh32: /* Fermions: Particles of Matter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T18:56:50Z

Vramesh32: /* Matter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T18:55:49Z

Vramesh32: /* Antimatter */

Elementary Particles and Particle Physics Theory

2015-12-05T18:55:25Z

Vramesh32: /* Matter */