Relativistic Momentum

This page gives the relativistic definition of linear momentum and compares it to the traditional definition of linear momentum.

The Main Idea

The Linear momentum of an object is traditionally defined as [math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p} = m \vec{v} }[/math]. Momentum is a useful quantity because many other concepts relate to it. For example, forces cause the momentum of a system to change according to Newton's Second Law: the Momentum Principle, and in certain situations, the momentum of a system is conserved (see Conservation of Momentum). However, for systems containing objects moving at speeds comparable to the speed of light, both Newton's second law and conservation of momentum appear to be violated. As it turns out, if the definition of the momentum of a particle is adjusted to accommodate high-speed objects, these relations hold true after all. The adjusted definition of momentum is called the relativistic definition and defines momentum as follows:

[math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}} * m \vec{v} }[/math]

where [math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p} }[/math] is the momentum of the particle, [math]\displaystyle{ m }[/math] is mass, [math]\displaystyle{ \vec{v} }[/math] is the velocity of the particle, [math]\displaystyle{ v }[/math] is the magnitude of the velocity (the speed of the particle), and [math]\displaystyle{ c }[/math] is the speed of light (about [math]\displaystyle{ 3 * 10^8 }[/math] m/s).

The factor [math]\displaystyle{ \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}} }[/math] appears in many other relativistic formulas, so it has been given a name (the Lorentz factor) and a symbol ([math]\displaystyle{ \gamma }[/math]). This turns the relativistic momentum formula into

[math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p} = \gamma m \vec{v} }[/math].

The Lorentz factor is a ratio and therefore has no units.

A Mathematical Model

Let us mathematically analyze the equations

[math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p} = \gamma m \vec{v} }[/math]

and

[math]\displaystyle{ \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}} }[/math].

One observation worth noting is that in the limit where the speed of the particle [math]\displaystyle{ v }[/math] is much smaller than the speed of light [math]\displaystyle{ c }[/math], the fraction [math]\displaystyle{ \frac{v^2}{c^2} }[/math] is approximately 0 and so [math]\displaystyle{ \gamma }[/math] is approximately 1. This explains why the traditional equation [math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p} = m \vec{v} }[/math] works very well for objects moving at everyday speeds; the relativistic definition and the traditional definition agree when [math]\displaystyle{ \gamma }[/math] is 1. The relativistic definition should be used if [math]\displaystyle{ v \gt \frac{1}{10} c }[/math]; for slower particles, the error caused by using the traditional formula is negligible.

Another observation worth noting is that in the limit where the speed of the particle [math]\displaystyle{ v }[/math] approaches the speed of light [math]\displaystyle{ c }[/math], the fraction [math]\displaystyle{ \frac{v^2}{c^2} }[/math] approaches 1 and so [math]\displaystyle{ \gamma }[/math] approaches infinity. This has far-reaching implications. An object of non-zero mass traveling at the speed of light would have infinite momentum according to the relativistic definition, so an infinite impulse must be applied to a particle at rest to change its speed to the speed of light. As real forces are always finite in both magnitude and duration, no particle of nonzero mass can ever achieve the speed of light. Let us analyze what happens if a constant force is applied to a particle at rest for a long time. The particle's momentum will increase linearly over time as a result of the force, as described by Newton's second law. At first, this means its speed increases linearly over time as well. However, as the particle enters the relativistic regime, [math]\displaystyle{ \gamma }[/math] begins to increase as well, meaning that the particle's speed doesn't have to increase as much to sustain the steady increase in momentum. Finally, when the particle's speed is nearly the speed of light, even the tiniest increases in [math]\displaystyle{ v }[/math] cause [math]\displaystyle{ \gamma }[/math] to skyrocket, meaning that the particle hardly speeds up while the particle's momentum continues to steadily increase. The speed of the particle would asymptotically approach the speed of light over time if the force continues to be applied.

Examples

Simple

Suppose that a proton (mass = [math]\displaystyle{ 1.7 * 10^{-27} }[/math] kg) is moving with a speed of [math]\displaystyle{ .97c }[/math]

What is the magnitude of the momentum of the proton?

[math]\displaystyle{ \frac{v}{c} = \frac{.97c}{c} }[/math] [math]\displaystyle{ = .97 }[/math]

[math]\displaystyle{ \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-(.97)^2}} = 4.1135 }[/math]

Plug values in

[math]\displaystyle{ p = \gamma * m*v = (4.1135)*(1.7*10^{-27})*(.97*(3*10^8)) = 2.035 * 10^{-18} }[/math] kg*m/s

Middling

Suppose that a proton (mass = [math]\displaystyle{ 1.7 * 10^{-27} }[/math] kg) is moving with a velocity [math]\displaystyle{ \lt 1 * 10^7 , 2 * 10^7 , 3 * 10^7\gt }[/math] m/s.

What is the momentum of the proton?

[math]\displaystyle{ \left\vert \overrightarrow{v} \right\vert = \sqrt{(1*10^7)^2 + (2*10^7)^2 +(3*10^7)^2} }[/math] m/s [math]\displaystyle{ = 3.7 * 10^7 }[/math] m/s.

[math]\displaystyle{ \frac{\left\vert \overrightarrow{v} \right\vert}{c} = \frac{3.7 * 10^7 m/s}{3 * 10^8 m/s} }[/math] [math]\displaystyle{ = .12 }[/math]

[math]\displaystyle{ \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-(.12)^2}} = 1.007 }[/math]

[math]\displaystyle{ \overrightarrow{p} = \gamma * m * \overrightarrow{v} }[/math]

Plug values in

[math]\displaystyle{ \overrightarrow{p} = (1.007)*(1.7*10^{-27})*\lt 1 * 10^7 , 2 * 10^7 , 3 * 10^7\gt = \lt 1.7 * 10^{-20}, 3.4 * 10^{-20}, 5.1 *10^{-20}\gt }[/math] kg*m/s

Difficult

Suppose that a proton (mass = [math]\displaystyle{ 1.7 * 10^{-27} }[/math] kg) is moving at a speed of [math]\displaystyle{ .95c }[/math]. A force of magnitude [math]\displaystyle{ 2 * 10^{-17} }[/math]N acts on it for .5s in the direction of the proton's velocity, causing it to speed up. What is its new speed at the end of the .5s time interval? Use [math]\displaystyle{ 3*10^8 }[/math] for [math]\displaystyle{ c }[/math].

Let us first find the initial momentum of the particle:

[math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p} = \gamma m \vec{v} }[/math]

[math]\displaystyle{ \gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-.95^2}} = 3.203 }[/math]

[math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p} = 3.203 * 1.7 * 10^{-27} * (.95 * 3 * 10^8) = 1.55 * 10^{-18} }[/math] kg*m/s

Now let us find the momentum at the end of the impulse using the impulse-momentum theorem (see impulse and momentum).

[math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p}_f = \vec{p}_i + \vec{J} }[/math]

Since the impulse is in the same direction as the velocity, this vector addition becomes scalar (regular) addition.

[math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p}_f = 1.55 * 10^{-18} + .5 * 2 * 10^{-17} = 1.155 * 10^{-17} }[/math] kg*m/s

Now let us solve for the final speed using

[math]\displaystyle{ \vec{p} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}} * m \vec{v} }[/math]

[math]\displaystyle{ 1.155 * 10^{-17} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{(3 * 10^8)^2}}} * 1.7 * 10^{-27} * v }[/math]

It is impossible to algebraically solve for [math]\displaystyle{ v }[/math], but using an equation solver yields

[math]\displaystyle{ v = 2.997 * 10^8 }[/math] m/s.

This demonstrates that when a particle is moving at nearly the speed of light, even a large impulse cannot cause it to meet or exceed the speed of light. An impulse of [math]\displaystyle{ 10^{-17} }[/math] N*s may not seem very large, but it increased the particle's momentum by approximately a factor of 10.

Connectedness

This concept of relativistic momentum affects several different majors. For example, on a quantum physics level, relativistic momentum aids in accurately predicting the position of a particle through a certain period of time.

Relativistic momentum is applicable throughout majors. Hopefully, one day, you'll find its use for you.

History

In 1905, Albert Einstein released his Special Theory of Relativity to the public. This theory set the "speed limit" for the universe at the speed of light. When objects, came closer to the speed of light, many entities are drastically changed (one being momentum). This changed the direction of physics immensely. After this discovery, physicists were better able to predict and calculate momentum on the microscopic scale of fast-moving particles.

See also

Links to different uses of momentum

Further reading

• Momentum Principle
• Impulse Momentum
• Momentum with Respect to External Forces
• Iterative Prediction and Position Update

References

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